How was the Italian peninsula divided in Dante’s time?

During Dante’s time, the political landscape in Italy was remarkably diverse.

In the northern and certain central regions, a prevalent feature was the presence of communes that functioned as autonomous city-states within the Holy Roman Empire. The central areas were influenced by the territorial dominance of the Papal States, a powerful and influential entity at the heart of Italian politics. Meanwhile, in the southern regions, the Angevin dynasty held sway, while the Aragonese dynasty exerted control in Sicily.

This multifaceted political scenario contributed to a complex interplay of regional powers, each vying for influence and dominance, shaping the socio-political fabric of Italy during Dante’s era.

The communes were self-governing urban entities, which emerged in the 11th to 12th century, a period marked by the weakened authority of German kings and a lack of centralized control. The absence of external forces provided an opportunity for these cities to be governed by influential local families who lived in such cities. By 1183, the emperor officially recognized the communes, solidifying their status.

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the population of these communes witnessed significant growth, evident in the expansion of perimeter walls surrounding many Italian cities. However, this period also saw the system based on the consolato facing a crisis. The consolato was a collegiate body consisting of two to twenty-four or even more members, responsible for both military and judicial political leadership. The consolato was based on an informal agreement among the wealthiest and most powerful families, who alternated their members as consuls, thereby transforming their informal hegemony into a recognised one. In certain cases, decisions made by the consuls had to be ratified by the arengo, a parliamentary assembly comprising all men. The arengo could only give assent through acclamation and lacked direct participation in the decision-making process.

The transition of affluent families from rural areas to urban centres, coupled with the rise of new wealthy and influential families, intensified the complexities of governance within cities. As these families found it increasingly challenging to reach consensus on city administration, many municipalities introduced new councils. These councils, larger than the traditional consulate yet smaller than the arengo, featured elected members with the authority to make decisions rather than merely approve proposals.

To address the growing need for effective coordination, many cities adopted a model where a single individual, known as the podestà, was granted exceptional powers to govern for varying periods. At the outset of the 13th century, this model gained widespread adoption, appointing a foreign figure to serve as podestà for a year, later reduced to six months by the end of the century. The podestà brought along their own judges and notaries. Their responsibilities encompassed leading the city council, presiding over the city tribunal, commanding the army during times of war, and maintaining internal peace.

_{Miniature from the Parisian manuscript by Caffaro di Rustico da Caschifellone depicting the Consuls of the Municipalities and the Consuls of the City}

The surge in population during the medieval period brought about heightened tensions between the traditional aristocracy and the emerging class of merchants, bankers, and artisans. Although the latter group accumulated wealth and prestige, they were often excluded from participating in the political decisions of the city.

By the mid-13th century, individuals from more common backgrounds began to actively engage in city councils and formed associations. These associations included corporate groups uniting individuals of the same profession and territorial associations bringing together residents of the same parishes. All these associations were united in a bigger organisation called società del popolo (society of the people). This society had its own leader, the capitano del popolo, typically a foreigner with a temporary assignment like the podestà. In larger cities such as Bologna and Florence, these institutions of the people gradually evolved into the true political epicentres of the city.

The urban aristocracy organised themselves into partes, associations that sought to align or bring the city into one of two inter-city coordinations: the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. The Ghibellines supported the Holy Roman Empire, while the Guelphs favoured the authority of the Church. When one of these factions gained dominance, the opposing side faced exclusion from the city, compelling them to seek refuge elsewhere and forfeit their citizenship and possessions.

However, the early 14th century marked a turning point as members of the aristocracy sought to legitimise their power through titles granted by the emperor. Some particularly stable signori (lords) began passing on power to their sons, heralding the gradual replacement of the commune system with the emergence of the signoria. This term described the lordship of a single family or individual over a specific territory, signifying a shift from communal governance to more centralised rule.

_{Battle of Montaperti between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines}