Case study: Papua New Guinea

Home to 800 languages, Papua New Guinea (PNG) is the most linguistically diverse nation in the world. In a world where minority languages are often marginalised and revitalisation efforts often fall short, PNG presents a rare case of inclusive and consultative language management.

Language policy in Papua New Guinea

Linguistic pluralism is central to Papua New Guinean life. English, Tok Pisin (an English-based creole), Hiri Motu and Papua New Guinean Sign Language are official languages used in government, media and education, but hundreds more are spoken nationwide. What distinguishes PNG from other linguistically diverse countries is the recognition of its many minority languages, particularly in education. In the 1980s, churches and NGOs helped to establish so-called “Viles Tok Ples Priskuls” (Village Language Preschools) where children were taught their home language to tackle “cultural alienation” as a result of English-language instruction. By 1986, using local or ‘vernacular’ languages in primary schools had become national policy with over 400 languages used as the language of instruction at primary level (Honeyman, 2015).

This reflects PNG’s grass-roots approach to language education. Rather than enforcing top-down policies, the government consulted local communities. Community members were recruited as teachers, even if they were not formally qualified. They were first language speakers of the local language and, although they were only paid between 25-60% of certified teacher salaries, they were able to support early education in children’s first language and were offered incentives to train as qualified teachers.

Comparing approaches

PNG’s exceptionality becomes clearer when compared to other plurilingual nations. For example, Olatunji (2016) provides a useful comparison of language policy in PNG and Nigeria, where over 500 languages are spoken. Although Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo are national languages promoted for use in schools, only English is official. A strict “English-first” approach to education which prevents children from learning their first language in the early years of education has proven ineffective, with less than 30% of the population proficient in English (Akomolafe, 2024).

Olatunji (2016) also highlights a lack of commitment in the wording of policies. Whereas PNG policy is “clear cut and explicitly articulated”, Nigerian policies use expressions such as “subject to availability of teachers” and “the government considers it to be of interest of national unity that each child should be encouraged to learn…” The use of “considers”, “should” and “encourage” act as hedges, making the policies vague and unconvincing, removing governmental responsibility for their success.

A good example of this non-committal approach is the Nigerian government’s French language policy. In 1996, hoping to align Nigeria with its French-speaking neighbours, the then-president Sani Abacha proposed that French should be the second official language (Ndukauba, 2020) and that it should be taught until the end of secondary school. However, French was never given official status and education policies were “taken with neither due consultations nor preparation” (Olatunji, 2016). French remains a compulsory subject in schools, but the French embassy in Nigeria reported in 2023 that secondary school students faced numerous challenges, including a lack of textbooks, limited technological resources, few school hours dedicated to French teaching and ineffective teaching practices (Ambassade de France au Nigéria, 2023).

Shifting policies

Papua New Guinea’s commitment to using indigenous languages in early education was long celebrated. However, in 2013 English was reinstated as the primary language of instruction in the early years of education. So-called ‘vernacular’ languages were to be used sparingly, only when difficult concepts needed to be explained. This shift marked a departure from PNG’s earlier commitments and has drawn criticism. Some argue that it undermines years of progress towards multilingual education and risks accelerating the loss of PNG’s rich linguistic heritage. Indeed, a 2021 study found that only 58% of students were fluent in indigenous languages, compared to 91% of their parents. Knowledge of their indigenous background also saw a sharp decline (Kik et al. 2021).

Papua New Guinea offers an invaluable case study for linguistically diverse nations. It demonstrates the possibility of involving local communities in the promotion of indigenous languages and embedding this approach into national education policy. Particularly compared to Nigeria’s top-down approach to the imposition of French, PNG’s model has been far more inclusive and successful. However, more recent changes to the policy and potential loss of indigenous language knowledge amongst young people demonstrate that such a policy requires constant support and maintenance. The case of PNG proves that it is possible to achieve a high level of language representation, but, just like Nigeria, it can face considerable challenges in its implementation.

References

Ambassade de France au Nigéria. (2023). L’Ambassade de France au Nigéria lance un nouveau projet FSPI pour renforcer les capacités de la société civile nigériane. Ambassade de France au Nigéria. https://ng.ambafrance.org/L-Ambassade-de-France-au-Nigeria-lance-un-nouveau-projet-FSPI-pour-renforcer

Bailey, J. (2017). Teaching vernacular vital for children in PNG. Post‑Courier. https://www.postcourier.com.pg/teaching-vernacular-vital-for-children/

Honeyman, C. (2015). The language of instruction controversy in Papua New Guinea. UNESCO IIEP Learning Portal. https://learningportal.iiep.unesco.org/en/blog/the-language-of-instruction-controversy-in-papua-new-guinea

Kik, A., Adamec, M., Aikhenvald, A. Y., Bajzekova, J., Baro, N., Bowern, C., Colwell, R. K., Drozd, P., Duda, P., Ibalim, S., Jorge, L. R., Mogina, J., Ruli, B., Sam, K., Sarvasy, H., Saulei, S., Weiblen, G. D., Zrzavy, J., & Novotny, V. (2021). Language and ethnobiological skills decline precipitously in Papua New Guinea, the world’s most linguistically diverse nation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(22), e2100096118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2100096118

Ndukauba, K. N. (2020). French language and national development the case of Nigeria. The International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Invention, 7(7), 6080-6085.

Olatunji, S. O. (2016). Similar Language Policies, Different Management Styles, Different Results: Nigeria and Papua New Guinea in Comparison. African Journal of Educational Management, 17(4), 57-71.