Risks for AMR development and transmission
Why has AMR emerged?
- Antibiotic use and overuse in human and animal healthcare.
- Use of antibiotics as growth promoters.
- Poor patient compliance with antibiotic treatment regimes.
- Inappropriate antibiotic dose rate or course duration.
- Antimicrobials in the environment.
- Inappropriate use of disinfectants.
- Bacterial evolutionary pressures.
AMR can be transmitted from animal to animal or from bacteria to bacteria.
Animal to animal:
Direct contact with infected animals, contact with infected surfaces, wildlife/rodents, water, feed, bedding and people are all methods of transmission between animals.The images below show potential infection hot spots (red areas) and infection control measures to reduce infection spread (green areas). Understanding infection risks and transfer ‘hot spots’ is crucial to reducing the emergence and spread of AMR.


Acknowledgments for images – AMRSim: A Microbial Reality Simulator. The Glasgow School of Art, University of Surrey and Fitzpatrick Referrals. Funded by an Arts and Humanities Research Council Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) grant number AH/R002088/1
Bacteria to bacteria:
There are 3 methods of transmission of AMR from bacteria to bacteria: transformation, conjugation and transduction.Transformation involves the uptake of free DNA in the environment. The free DNA usually comes from the breakdown of dead bacteria.


Antimicrobial Stewardship in Veterinary Practice

Our purpose is to transform access to education.
We offer a diverse selection of courses from leading universities and cultural institutions from around the world. These are delivered one step at a time, and are accessible on mobile, tablet and desktop, so you can fit learning around your life.
We believe learning should be an enjoyable, social experience, so our courses offer the opportunity to discuss what you’re learning with others as you go, helping you make fresh discoveries and form new ideas.
You can unlock new opportunities with unlimited access to hundreds of online short courses for a year by subscribing to our Unlimited package. Build your knowledge with top universities and organisations.
Learn more about how FutureLearn is transforming access to education